Archaeological excavations at the ancient site of Megiddo in northern Israel, also known as “Armageddon,” have unearthed a significant amount of 7th-century BCE Egyptian pottery, potentially providing the first physical evidence of the battle between King Josiah of Judah and Pharaoh Necho of Egypt, as documented in the biblical books of Kings II and Chronicles.
A team of Israeli archaeologists, led by Prof. Israel Finkelstein of the University of Haifa and Dr. Assaf Kleiman of Ben Gurion University, detailed their findings in two academic papers published earlier this year. The unprecedented quantity of Egyptian ceramic vessels discovered at Megiddo suggests a substantial Egyptian military presence at the site during the period when the biblical battle is said to have occurred.
“Megiddo is the only site in Israel and the neighboring countries mentioned in the Bible and in all great records of the Ancient Near East,” noted Prof. Finkelstein, highlighting the site’s historical significance.
The biblical narrative in 2 Chronicles and 2 Kings describes how King Josiah, a ruler who sought to restore righteous practices in Judah, confronted Pharaoh Necho as the Egyptian king marched against the Assyrians. The ensuing battle at Megiddo resulted in Josiah’s death (2 Chronicles 35:20-22; 2 Kings 23:29).
Dr. Kleiman, who spearheaded the studies, emphasized the long-held suspicion of an Egyptian stronghold at Megiddo in the late 7th century BCE, largely based on the biblical account of Josiah’s demise there. The recent discoveries of the Egyptian pottery, including serving bowls, cooking pots, and storage jars, offer tangible support for this historical context. The crude nature and large quantity of these vessels suggest they were brought in by an army rather than through trade.
Adding another layer of intrigue, the excavations also revealed a notable amount of pottery from eastern Greece, dated to between 630 and 610 BCE. This timeframe aligns with the estimated date of the Josiah-Necho battle (609 BCE). Finkelstein and Kleiman propose that these Greek ceramics might indicate the presence of Greek mercenaries who fought alongside the Egyptians.
“We know of such mercenaries in the service of Egypt of that time from both Greek and Assyrian textual sources,” Finkelstein explained.
Intriguingly, these Greek mercenaries could also connect to the biblical narrative of Gog. Finkelstein suggested that some scholars believe “Gog” in the Bible might refer to Gyges, the king of Lydia in western Anatolia, who, according to Assyrian records, sent mercenaries to serve in the Egyptian army during the 7th century BCE. The figure of Gog is portrayed in the Hebrew Bible as an enemy of Israel (Ezekiel 38-39) and later as an ally of Satan in the New Testament’s Book of Revelation, in the eschatological battle at “Armageddon” (a Greek corruption of “Har Megiddo” – the hill of Megiddo).
Finkelstein speculated on a possible theological link: “Perhaps the theological idea behind it is that a savior from the lineage of David will return in the place where the last and most righteous Davidic King [Josiah] died.”
The recent finds are particularly significant given the history of excavations at Megiddo, which began in the early 20th century and often employed less sophisticated methods. The current team’s meticulous work in “Area X” unearthed remains of a 7th-century BCE building with a rich collection of pottery, including not only the Egyptian vessels but also locally produced Assyrian-style pottery and even a fragment of a Judahic cooking pot, suggesting a complex social fabric at the time.
Dr. Kleiman highlighted the unexpected survival of these ancient layers: “Finding undisturbed remains of the Assyrian period in Megiddo had always been a passion of mine since it was widely believed that these remains were completely removed by the expedition that worked at the site in the early 20th century.”
While there is no non-biblical evidence directly confirming the existence of King Josiah, Dr. Kleiman asserted that his existence is widely accepted in biblical and historical scholarship, noting the increased literacy of the era and contemporary documentation. Evidence for Pharaoh Necho’s presence in the Levant is also found in Babylonian chronicles and other biblical texts.
Furthermore, Dr. Kleiman’s research suggests that not all members of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel were exiled in the 7th century BCE, as continuous production of local-style pottery at Megiddo indicates a significant local population persisted under Assyrian rule.
The ongoing archaeological work at Megiddo continues to shed light on this pivotal historical and potentially biblically significant site, bridging textual accounts with tangible artifacts from the past.
The discoveries at Megiddo not only illuminate a critical moment in biblical history but also contribute to the ongoing dialogue about the intersection of archaeology, history, and scripture. As researchers delve deeper into the past, the site continues to reveal its secrets, offering a glimpse into the complexities of ancient life and the narratives that have shaped our understanding of history.
Finkelstein, I., Adams, M. J., Fantalkin, A., & Kleiman, A. (2025). Josiah at Megiddo: New Evidence from the Field. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/09018328.2025.2454490
Cover Image Credit: Megiddo Expedition
