17 June 2025 The Future is the Product of the Past

First direct evidence of drug use as part of Bronze Age ritual ceremonies in Europe

An analysis of human hair strands recovered from a burial site in Menorca, Spain, reveals that ancient human civilizations used hallucinogenic drugs derived from plants.

According to the researchers, the findings are the first direct evidence of ancient drug use in Europe, which may have been used as part of ritualistic ceremonies.

Previous evidence of prehistoric drug use in Europe was based on indirect evidence, such as the discovery of opium alkaloids in Bronze Age containers, the discovery of drug plant remains in ritualistic contexts, and the appearance of drug plants in artistic depictions.

Researchers detected scopolamine, ephedrine, and atropine in three replicated hair samples.

Atropine and scopolamine are naturally occurring substances in the nightshade plant family that can cause delirium, hallucinations, and altered sensory perception. Ephedrine is a stimulant derived from certain shrubs and pines that can boost excitement, alertness, and physical activity.

Elisa Guerra-Doce and colleagues noted in their study that, considering the potential toxicity of the alkaloids found in the hair, their handling, use, and applications represented highly-specialised knowledge.

Dyeing scene in the funerary chamber. Credit: Oriol Garcia i Quera, ASOME-Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.
Dyeing scene in the funerary chamber. Credit: Oriol Garcia i Quera, ASOME-Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.

Authors said: “As early as the Paleolithic period, humans came across the non-food properties of certain plants.

“The results presented here indicate that several alkaloid-bearing plants were consumed by Bronze Age people from Menorca (although Solanaceae and Ephedra were not the only ones to have been consumed).

“Interestingly, the psychoactive substances detected in this study are not suitable for alleviating the pain involved in severe palaeopathological conditions attested in the population buried in the cave of Es Carritx, such as periapical abscesses, severe caries and arthropathies.

The scientists suggest the presence of these substances may have been due to consumption of some nightshade plants, such as mandrake, henbane or thorn apple, and joint pine.

It is thought these drug plants may have been used as part of ritual ceremonies performed by a shaman.

Wooden bowl and spoon found in the hoard with the human hair containers. Credit: Peter Witte, ASOME-Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.
Wooden bowl and spoon found in the hoard with the human hair containers. Credit: Peter Witte, ASOME-Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.

According to the researchers, the concentric circles on the wooden containers they were discovered in may have depicted eyes and could have been a metaphor for inner vision related to a drug-induced altered state of consciousness.

Elisa Guerra-Doce and colleagues from Spain’s Universidad de Valladolid examined hair strands from the Es Carritx cave in Menorca, which was first occupied around 3,600 years ago and contained a chamber used as a funeral space until around 2,800 years ago. According to past studies, around 210 individuals were interred in this chamber.

However, only certain people had their hair dyed red, placed in decorative wooden and horn containers, and taken to a different, sealed chamber further back in the cave.

The new research was published in Scientific Reports.

DOI: 10.1038/1598-023-31064-2

Related Articles

10,000-year-old rock art discovered in the Indian village of Medikonda

3 July 2021

3 July 2021

Rock art containing tiger, human and animal figures was found at the Jogulamba Gadwal site in Telangana, India. The New...

A 4,500-year-old rope remains were discovered at Turkey’s Seyitömer mound

26 December 2021

26 December 2021

In the rescue excavation carried out in the mound, which is located within the license border of Çelikler Seyitömer Electricity...

Evidence of Brain Surgery performed 3,000 years ago discovered in the ancient city of Tel Megiddo

27 February 2023

27 February 2023

Researchers have discovered a rare instance of delicate cranial surgery, possibly the earliest of its kind in the Middle East,...

Multiple Burials found at Çatalhöyük

17 September 2021

17 September 2021

Multiple burials were unearthed during the ongoing excavations in the house on the eastern mound of the Neolithic settlement Çatalhöyük....

Archaeologists uncovered a Roman settlement and what is thought to be an extremely rare early Medieval longhouse in North East Wales

16 August 2024

16 August 2024

The team from the University of Chester, Heneb: the Trust for Welsh Archaeology (Clwyd-Powys region), and the Portable Antiquities Scheme...

Roman Bath Complex Found under Spain’s Caños de Meca beach

22 May 2021

22 May 2021

A well-preserved ancient Roman bath complex emerged from the sand of a beach in the Andalusian region of southwestern Spain....

Unusual Iron Age Female Grave Found in Pryssgården, Sweden

3 November 2024

3 November 2024

In an Iron Age cemetery in Sweden, archaeologists found a woman’s grave buried with a small needle and an iron...

The largest marine turtle fossil of its kind ever discovered in Europe unearthed in Spain

21 November 2022

21 November 2022

In northern Spain, scientists discovered the remains of a new species of enormous marine turtle. The prehistoric creature is the...

A 4000-year-old Fabric Found in a Cave of Skulls in the Judean Desert is the Oldest Dyed with Insect Dye

15 July 2024

15 July 2024

Researchers discovered an ancient textile dyed with kermes (Kermes vermilio) in Israel’s Cave of Skulls that dates back to the...

Urartian graves in eastern Turkey pointing out novel burial traditions

21 September 2021

21 September 2021

The excavations in Cavuştepe castle continue with the excavations in the necropolis this year. Two new tombs from the Urartian...

Evidence of Medieval Scotland in Inverness revealed by building work

19 June 2021

19 June 2021

Archaeologists in Scotland have discovered medieval remains during excavations for construction work, and they are exposing mysteries about the industrial...

Ancient City Cistern Found Near Croatia’s Iconic Fountain

15 February 2024

15 February 2024

An island-speckled coastline and ancient walled towns place Croatia among the world’s best-beauty cities. But there’s even more to this...

Hellenistic cremation tomb found in Istanbul’s Haydarpasa excavations

11 April 2022

11 April 2022

A brick tomb belonging to the Hellenistic period (330 BC – 30 BC) was found during the Haydarpaşa excavations, which...

Treasure hunters revealed a 2,700-year-old Urartian temple In the east of Turkey

18 June 2022

18 June 2022

Treasure hunters revealed a 2,700-year-old Urartian temple A group of treasure hunters, who were digging illegally to find treasure in...

Archaeologists have pinpointed the location of a famous early Islamic battle using declassified spy satellite images

14 November 2024

14 November 2024

Archaeologists from Durham University in the UK and the University of Al-Qadisiyah have identified the site of the historic Battle...